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INTRODUCTION
An imbalance between energy
intake and energy expenditure can cause to a condition called obesity (or
overweight in a slight degree) which is a major health problem. Based on
published data by World Health Organization (WHO), overweight and obesity are
defined as a body mass index (BMI) between 25 to 29.9, and a BMI of 30 or more,
respectively [1]. Overweight and obesity are the third common hazard
attributable to burden of disease and there is a significant relationship
between high levels of obesity and chronic illnesses including coronary heart
disease (CHD), hypertension (HTN), diabetes and cancers. Restriction of
sedentary life style through increasing physical activity is an important part
of the most guidelines of health associations to control and decrease the
prevalence of overweight and obesity in the world.
EFFECTS ON BODY MASS
AND FAT MASS
EFFECTS ON TYPE 2
DIABETES AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE
There is little research directly examining the
longitudinal associations of RT with occurrence type 2 diabetes and
cardiovascular disease risk. Nevertheless, existing data support the inclusion
of strength training in physical activity regimens for reduced risk of type 2
diabetes and cardiovascular disease, independent of aerobic exercise [9]. RT
improve insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in patients with impaired glucose
tolerance or manifest T2D. RT may improve glucose and insulin responses to a
glucose load in diabetic men and women, and also improves insulin sensitivity
in diabetic or insulin-resistant middle-aged and older men and women. In
addition, high-intensity RT can decrease glycosylated hemoglobin levels in
diabetic men and women, regardless of age [4].
Several study demonstrated that RT has the
potential to lower risk factors for CHD (total cholesterol, low-density
lipoprotein cholesterol, and plasma triglyceride), independent of changes in
body weight or body composition [4]. No information is available about the
effect of RT on patients with dyslipidemia alone. A recent study [10] showed
that isometric and isokinetic muscle strength for dyslipidemic patients with a
low BMI (less than 25 kg/m2) was statistically significantly higher
than patients with a high BMI. Hence an exercise program for dyslipidemic
patients with a high BMI should include muscle-strengthening exercises in order
to positively influence both their metabolic profiles and functional status.
Moderate-intensity RT is safe and recommended for healthy individuals, patients
with stable CHD and patients with congestive heart failure, considering that
left ventricular function remained into the normal ranges when aerobic and RT
were compared [11].
Progressive RT promotes an improvement in
markers of oxidative stress in older women independent of the load-management
RT system [12]. RT can reduce exercise-induced oxidative stress in overweight
and obese older adults, associated with CVD. A potential mechanism for this
reduction could include contraction-induced antioxidant enzyme up-regulation
[4]. Further research is needed to determine an optimum dose and intensity of
muscle-strengthening exercises for the reduction of type 2 diabetes and
cardiovascular disease rates.
EFFECTS ON BLOOD
PRESSURE
The American College of Sports Medicine [13]
recommends dynamic aerobic endurance training for at least 30 min daily,
preferably supplemented with dynamic resistance exercise for HTN. RT may reduce
resting blood pressure (BP), possibly by reducing peripheral resistance and
improving endothelial function. However, several cardiology societies exclude
isolated RT from the list of non-pharmacological recommendations to control BP
[11]. RT alone decreases systolic and diastolic BP in pre-hypertensive and
hypertensive subjects. The randomized controlled trials studies support the
recommendation of RT as an effective tool for management of systemic HTN [11].
Both low-intensity isometric and
moderate-intensity dynamic RT may lower systolic and diastolic BP [14]. Data
from a small number of isometric RT studies suggest this form of training has
the potential for the largest reductions in systolic BP and isometric handgrip
activity may become a new tool in the non-pharmacological treatment of high BP
[15]. It's important to note that increased frequency of RT (more than three
times per week) is associated with a higher BP reduction. This is one
superiority of RT compared to aerobic training, which is usually performed with
a higher frequency (four to seven times per week) [11].
There wasn’t show significant effect of RT on
diastolic BP. The meta-analysis confirmed the opinion that RT may benefit
resting BP. The effect of RT on resting systolic BP and diastolic BP seems to
be dose-dependent, since decreases in resting BP were more pronounced when the
RT program was of high volume. The BP-lowering effect of RT seems to be
independent of weight loss [4].
The exact physiological mechanisms responsible
for the reduction of BP are still unclear. The reduction in peripheral vascular
resistance, resting heart rate, double product and arterial stiffness are the
factors influence post-exercise hypotension [11]. Some studies have shown that
RT improves biosynthesis and activity of endothelial nitric oxide synthase,
leading to physiological levels of nitric oxide production, which has a key
role in the control of vascular tone, mediating reduction in BP [16].
PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS
OF RT
Despite a strong theoretical basis for
expecting positive effects of RT on psychological outcomes, the evidence for
psychological effects of these exercises is unclear [17]. Physical exercise is
one the best way for increasing the confidence in different individuals.
Scientific evidence show that people who have psychological problem such as
anxiety, if do exercise training (aerobics or RT), can observe positive changes
in their responsibilities, senses, interests and happiness [17]. Obesity may
limit the ability of doing active exercises such as running or cycling, RT is a
better recommendation for benefits achievement of physical training. Overweight
or obese individuals are stronger (in the absolute sense) and better at
(absolute) strength exercises compared with normal-weight people. RT is easier
for overweight people compared with aerobic exercises.
Exercises have possible positive effects on a
number of psychological outcome measures (e.g. self-efficacy, self-esteem,
inhibition and psychological disorders such as anxiety and depression) in
overweight or obese populations. These effects seem comparable to and sometimes
stronger than those of aerobic and diet interventions. Due to a lack of data
both conclusions are provisional [17].
1. Mehrabani J, Ganjifar KZ (2018) Overweight and
obesity: A brief challenge on prevalence, complications and physical activity
among men and women. MOJ Womens Health 7: 19-24.
2. Hoor GA, Plasqui G, Schols AMWJ, Kok G (2014)
Combating adolescent obesity: An integrated physiological and psychological
perspective. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 17: 521-524.
3. Willis LH, Slentz CA, Bateman LA, Shields AT, Piner
LW, et al. (2012) Effects of aerobic and/or resistance training on body mass
and fat mass in overweight or obese adults. J Appl Physiol (1985) 113:
1831-1837.
4. Strasser B, Schobersberger W (2011) Evidence for
resistance training as a treatment therapy in obesity. Journal of Obesity 2011:
1-11.
5. Donnelly JE, Blair SN, Jakicic JM, Manore MM, Rankin
JW, et al. (2009) American College of Sports Medicine Position Stand.
Appropriate physical activity intervention strategies for weight loss and
prevention of weight regain for adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc 41: 459-471.
6. Villareal DT, Aguirre L, Gurney AB, Waters DL,
Sinacore DR, et al. (2017) Aerobic or resistance exercise, or both, in dieting
obese older adults. N Engl J Med 376: 1943-1955.
7. Ali S, Garcia JM (2014) Sarcopenia, cachexia and
aging: Diagnosis, mechanisms and therapeutic options - A mini-review.
Gerontology 60: 294-305.
8. Lemmer JT, Ivey FM, Ryan AS, Martel GF, Hurlbut DE, et
al. (2001) Effect of strength training on resting metabolic rate and physical
activity: Age and gender comparisons. Med Sci Sports Exerc 33: 532-541.
9. Shiroma EJ, Cook NR, Manson JE, Moorthy MV, Buring JE,
et al. (2017) Strength training and the risk of type 2 diabetes and
cardiovascular disease. Med Sci Sports Exerc 49: 40-46.
10. Ercan S, Demir HM, Cetin C (2018) The association
between strength, balance and physical function with the body mass index in
dyslipidemia. Journal of Obesity and Overweight 4: 102.
11. de Sousa EC, Abrahin O, Ferreira ALL, Rodrigues RP,
Alves EAC, et al. (2017) Resistance training alone reduces systolic and
diastolic blood pressure in pre-hypertensive and hypertensive individuals:
Meta-analysis. Hypertens Res 40: 927-931.
12. Ribeiro AS, Deminice R, Schoenfeld BJ, Tomeleri CM,
Padilha CS, et al. (2017) Effect of resistance training systems on oxidative
stress in older women. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 27: 439-447.
13. Pescatello LS, Franklin BA, Fagard R, Farquhar WB,
Kelley GA, et al. (2004) American College of Sports Medicine position stand.
Exercise and hypertension. Med Sci Sports Exerc 36: 533-553.
14. Cornelissen VA, Fagard RH, Coeckelberghs E, Vanhees L
(2011) Impact of resistance training on blood pressure and other cardiovascular
risk factors: a meta-analysis of randomized, controlled trials. Hypertension
58: 950-958.
15. Cornelissen VA, Buys R, Smart NA (2013) Endurance
exercise beneficially affects ambulatory blood pressure: A systematic review
and meta-analysis. J Hypertens 31: 639-648.
16. Macedo FN, Mesquita TR, Melo VU, Mota MM, Silva TL, et
al. (2016) Increased nitric oxide bioavailability and decreased sympathetic
modulation are involved in vascular adjustments induced by low-intensity
resistance training. Front Physiol 7: 265.
17. Gill A, Kok G, Peters GJY, Frissen T, Schols AMWJ, et
al. (2017) The psychological effects of strength exercises in people who are
overweight or obese: A systematic review. Sports Med 47: 2069-2081.
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