5184
Views & Citations4184
Likes & Shares
Macau, a former Portuguese
colony, was returned the territory of Macao to the People’s Republic of China
in 1999. It was one of the most prosperous ports in the Far East from the late
of sixteenth Century to the early of seventeenth Century. Tourism, hospitality
and gambling are main parts of economic structure and revenues. In 2005, Macau
was written into the Historic Centre of Macau on UNESCO’s World Heritage List
because of Macau’s rich history and diversity of cultures. This study explores
the importance of residents’ destination image and perception of tourism
impacts in shaping their supporting for event development. The Social Exchange
Model (SET) proposed residents’ perceptions of tourism impacts influence
destination and in turn their support for tourism development. This research
aims to explore Macau local residents support for event tourism development and
to examine the various impacts from conducting event tourism development in
Macau. A qualitative approach adopted with a sample of 30 respondents.
Semi-structured questions are asked through in-depth interviews and
recommendations are made based on the results to provide insights for industry
practitioners. Result indicated resident support the event base on reduced and
considered environmental impact for future suggestion. Implication for
destination marketer need to make use of innovative marketing strategies such
us adopted technology via social media platform as result create positive word
of the mouth.
Keywords: Macau residents,
Event tourism, Destination image, Tourism impact.
Geographic Background
Gambling in Macau has been legal
since the 1850s when the Portuguese government legalized the activity in the
autonomous colony. Since then, Macau has
Liberalization of gaming was a
milestone for the tourism development in Macau started from 2002, attracting
vast investment from all over the world to build mega-casinos such as Wynn
Resorts Ltd, MGM and the Las Vegas Sands Corporation. Although many casino
resorts had been built in Macau, local government did not want to overly rely
on gambling. As result of shifting from gambling to MICE and event tourism,
many high –end convention centre were set up in Macau over the last decade.
Government attempted to promote event tourism for capture more visitors to
Macau.
Event tourism has become a common
tool to promote destination which tend to host various events for economic
benefits, cultural exchange and environmental protection that can accrue.
Tourism greatly influences residents’ transportation, lifestyle, cultural
change and destination image, and tourism development cannot be excellent
without residents’ positive attitude and support (Gursoy & Rutherford,
2004; Lee, 2013). Tourism impacts can be categorized into economic,
socio-cultural and environmental or positive and negative. Over the past
several years, many scholars (Kim et al., 2013) demonstrated the positive and
negative economic impacts of destination tourism to residents. They stated that tourism development can
generate more employment opportunities, vast investments and profitable local
businesses and increase the standard of living. Pizam (1996) also suggested the
economic benefits of tourism. Positive tourism impacts include improving tax revenue
in local government and personal income, increasing standard of living and
improving personal attitude towards employment. The drawback is that cost of
living simultaneously increases, including prices of goods and services.
Balduck, Maes and Buelens (2011)
defined social impact as the behaviors towards destination and travel that lead
to changes in tourists’ and residents’ lifestyle, behavior patterns,
environmental protection and cultural exchange. Social impacts were explained
in various studies, scholars reached the consensus that social impact is an
important theory. Social benefits can lead to residents taking pride in their
locality and native culture, understanding the characteristics of visitors,
promoting cultural communication and bringing social identity and welfare.
Tassiopoulos and Johnson (2009) found direct socio-cultural support to tourism
development when residents and local charities can receive positive
socio-cultural benefits, including cultural exchanges and preserved culture and
heritage. Therefore, event tourism provide various impact to the society,
marketer ca not be ignored from these viewpoints.
The government utilized Macau’s
advantages to develop event and attract visitors.
Table 1 summarizes the
major tourism events designed and organized by the Macau governmental
organizations. The table includes major annual events and festivals in Macau
SAR. Most of these events may capture media attention and benefits the local
economy.
Many special
events are held for residents and visitors every year. The total number of
participants and attendees was 694,000 in 2017, 1,381 MICE events were
organized and the number of participants and attendees reached 1,901,000. The
number of meetings and conferences went up by 2 on a yearly basis and the
number of participants rose by 23.8%, which was attributable to the increase in
meetings and conferences with 200 participants or more. Meetings and
conferences whereas the number of participants expanded by 40.1% (DSEC, 2018).
Most of the meetings and conferences were held in November 2017 at 143 (+7);
however, the number of participants dropped by 26.3% on a monthly basis to
25,000 (DSEC, 2018). Given these figures, investigating how locals perceive the
event development in Macau is worthwhile to enhance understanding of how do
they think of the destination image and what kind of impact will be made in the
community. Using the results of the investigation, the government can uplift
the policy in facilitating the environment and benefit the local community.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Event tourism is a combination of
tourism and event industries, propelling tourism planning and marketing and
holding and marketing events as a new attraction for visitors (Getz, 1991;
1997). Getz (2008) stated that a great event development planning should
integrate approaches toward tourism destination and marketing strategies. The
goals of event tourism include gaining more revenues or income for local
government from visitors and exhibitors, creating a great and famous
destination image, enhancing locals’ self-identity and improving infrastructure
and public transportation and environmental benefits to residents.
Events
result in sharing views and opinions with others to achieve a successful and
meaningful outcome (Silvers, 2004). In addition, events bring infrastructure
improvement and social impacts to a destination and provide jobs and income for
economic and city development (Konstantaki & Wickens, 2010; Soutar &
McLeod, 1993). Positive economic impacts are increasing revenue, solving
unemployment and minimize inflation. At the same time, these events can result
in potential negatives to residents such as increased cost of living, traffic
congestion and environmental pollution. Tourism destination can attract
tourists, businesses and investments by improving positive impacts and handling
negative ones (Popescu & Corbos, 2012). The destination or city can
increase its destination competitiveness through tourism development (Donald &
Getz, 2007) and provide many economic or social benefits to residents and
visitors to celebrate their collective achievements. Such an approach provides
interaction between visitors and residents. Thus, events are meaningful for
researchers, as they can study individuals and communities as a whole (Reid,
2007). Tourism destination practitioners and marketers agree that event tourism
should be an important industry for enhancing economic growth and cultural
exchange in tourism destinations (Fredline, Jago, & Deery, 2003). However,
events generate media coverage because they help destination practitioners and
marketers create a positive image to visitors and bring benefits to the tourism
industry (Derret, 2011).
Holding
events is a popular approach for fun or entertainment in different areas. The
benefit not only limited to visitors at the same time they can benefit locals.
Fredline and Faulkner (2000) found that during ambivalence among residents,
they tend to go at Gold Coast for motorsport events to relax themselves. This
event is also a positive part of their lives. Gibson and Davidson (2004) stated
that perception of residents for a local country music festival is that it can
bring a positive image to local community. McCartney (2005) stated that residents
also have a positive attitude towards Macau Grand Prix because it made Macau
become an international city. This event created more attractive strategies and
propelled planning to develop event businesses that fully understood residents’
perception and avoided the negative impacts in Macau. This important issue that
residents focused on could affect their positive perception towards events.
This designation could also add economic benefits to the government and
residents because it might result in local events, providing various impacts
from tourism events.
Au (2016) examined how
accommodating visitors make cities crowded. As a consequence of visitors
competing against residents for goods and services, many residents avoid
visiting cultural attractions in Macau. Chen (2011) identified the benefits
generated from job opportunities to residents. However, discussion based on
event development is limited. Previous scholar (Christina, 2008) focused their
study on destination image of visitors than residents. Destination image is an
important element for destination management in tourism as it influences
tourists’ destination and overall satisfaction as well as their destination
loyalty and revisit option. With destination image as basis, destination
marketers can carry out a valuable approach to balance the image from visitor
perspectives. Stylidis (2014) suggested that residents’ destination image also
exerts a positive effect on their perception of tourism impacts by drawing on
the triple bottom line approach and adopting a non-forced approach and then
understanding residents’ attitudes and perception towards tourism development.
However, discussion based on residents’ destination image is limited.
Destination image and impact are crucial for residents such that they take
pride and create positive word of mouth. Therefore, this study attempted to use
the viewpoint of residents to provide policy makers with recommendations on how
to uplift the destination image and create a positive image for the local
community.
Previous scholars major focus on
Macau casino development or casino-related issues, thus overlooking other
industries. (Taormina & Kuok, 2009; Wong & Rosenbaum, 2012; Chan, Wan
& Kwok, 2015; McCartney, 2016;) If we can understand residents perception
to tourism impacts can help government recognize various impact, reduce
conflicts between tourist and residents as result create plans for motivating
residents to support tourism development. This research attempted to fill the
aforementioned gaps.
The
study objectives to examine residents ‘attitudes toward event development in
Macau; to identify the perception of residents towards event tourism’s effect
on destination image and various impact in the community; to investigate
whether residents perceived impact affect their support to event development in
Macau and provide suggest to government for future destination development.
The expected outcomes to
marketers can enhance their understanding of how to market events and enhance
the image of the destination. Study made recommendations to the government for
future destination development and improvement. From the operation perspective,
government can utilize relative infrastructure and ensure accessibility of the
venue to create attendee satisfaction and loyalty. Conversely from residents’
perspective, understand their needs and want and reduce the conflict between
locals and visitors, as result can create an positive word of the mouth in
promoting Macau.
LITERATURE REVIEW
The Rationale of Event
Tourism
Event tourism has been agreed as
one of the most popular parts of tourism development in countries and cities
because of its rapid growth and environment friendliness. Event tourism is a
combination of tourism and event industries, propelling tourism planning and
marketing and holding and marketing events as a new attraction for visitors
(Getz, 1991; 1997). Getz (2008) stated that a great event development planning
should integrate approaches toward tourism destination and marketing
strategies. The goals of event tourism include gaining more revenues or income
for local government from visitors and exhibitors, creating a great and famous
destination image, enhancing locals’ self-identity and improving infrastructure
and public transportation and environmental benefits to residents.
Events result in sharing views
and opinions with others to achieve a successful and meaningful outcome
(Silvers, 2004). In addition, events bring infrastructure improvement and
social impacts to a destination and provide jobs and income for economic and
city development (Konstantaki & Wickens, 2010; Soutar & McLeod, 1993).
Positive economic impacts are increasing revenue, solving unemployment and
minimizing inflation. The destination or city can increase its destination
competitiveness through tourism development (Donald & Getz, 2007) and
provide many economic or social benefits to residents and visitors to celebrate
their collective achievements. Such an approach provides interaction between visitors
and residents. Thus, events are meaningful for researchers, as they can study
individuals and communities as a whole (Reid, 2007). Tourism destination
practitioners and marketers agree that event tourism should be an important
industry for enhancing economic growth and cultural exchange in tourism
destinations (Fredline, Jago & Deery, 2003). However, events generate media
coverage because they help destination practitioners and marketers create a
positive image to visitors and bring benefits to the tourism industry (Derret,
2011).
Holding
events is a popular approach for fun or entertainment in different areas.
Fredline and Faulkner (2000) found that during ambivalence among residents,
they tend to go at Gold Coast for motorsport events to relax themselves. This
event is also a positive part of their lives. Gibson and Davidson (2004) stated
that perception of residents for a local country music festival is that it can
bring a positive image to local community. McCartney (2005) stated that
residents also have a positive attitude towards Macau Grand Prix because it
made Macau become an international city. This event created more attractive
strategies and propelled planning to develop event businesses that fully
understood residents’ perception and avoided the negative impacts in Macau.
Chen (2011) stated that the Macau government should find a propelling approach
that can relieve the pressure from social services. This important issue that
residents focused on could affect their positive perception towards events.
This designation could also add economic benefits to the government and
residents because it might result in local events, providing various impacts
from tourism events.
DESTINATION IMAGE CONCEPTION
Destination image is crucial for
tourism development in terms of organizing a meaningful tourism planning and
marketing strategy for a destination. Hunt (1975) stated that images are
extrinsically important because they could project the images and provide an
overview of a city into a potential tourist’s view. Understanding the differing
images that visitors and non-visitors hold of a destination is important; thus,
the government and marketers could propel tourism planning to attract visitors
and non-visitors so as to develop tourism in a particular area (Selby Morgan,
1996). A destination image is defined as a significant element for tourism
destination management and marketing because it affects the supply-demand
aspect, such as tourist attitudes and especially their perception towards
destinations (Alhemoud & Armstrong, 1996). Furthermore, destination image
is frequently defined to include beliefs, thoughts and perceptions that
visitors hold towards their destination (Crompton, 1979). It is an important
element for a successful and meaning tourism planning marketing. Majority of
scholars covered a wide range of themes related to this topic, such as the
dimension and conceptualization of destination images (Baloglu & McCleary,
1999).
Mayo (1973) proposed three basic
factors of images, namely, scenery, traffic condition and climate. According to
Mayo’s points of study, destination images would become relevant and attractive
with sufficient scenery and moderate population. However, tourists find that a
comfortable climate is an excellent attraction for local destinations. Moutinho
(1987) also proposed three factors for destination images, namely,
consciousness, attitude and expectation. Fakeye and Crompton (1991) added
another element to the conception towards destination images and formulated
complex images when visitors have directly experienced and perceived their
destination. Gunn’s (1998) theory, which includes original and induced images,
Gunn (1972) pointed out that the target image should contain two elements,
namely, organic and induced. Through an organic image of the destination, a
potential tourist can learn or perceive the destination information by
newspapers, radio, television, documentaries, journals and books. However, an
induced image is a consequence of the promotion, such as paid advertising,
publicity, public relations and rewards, of a specific place as a tourist
destination (Gunn, 1997).
Examining the destination images
of residents has become a frequent object of studies worldwide. Residents’
image of the destination where they live and work is necessary and brings
meaning to the understanding of their attitude, perception and behavioral
intentions, such as their support for tourism development based on destination
images and tourism impacts on their city and the benefits that they gain from
the tourism industry (Ramkissoon & Nunkoo, 2011). Echtner and Ritchie
(1993) suggested that researchers could create structured and unstructured
methods for the study on tourism development. That is, gathering feedback on
destination images from visitors and residents is extremely convenient.
Destination images could be regarded as a whole or destination elements, where
each element consists of functional (tangible) or psychological (intangible or
abstract) characteristics (Echtner & Ritchie, 1991). These images could
portray the visitors’ or residents’ view and perception. Beerli and Martin
(2004) studied the measurement of destination images among visitors and
residents. They found that destination images should consist of cognitive,
affective and conative components. The cognitive component of the image is
related to a person’s beliefs and information about the destination and their
outcomes, which can help visitors or residents to form an internally meaningful
mental picture of this destination (Baloglu & McCleary, 1999; Pike &
Ryan, 2004). It is also regarded as visitors’ or residents’ reaction and
enjoyment of the resources and infrastructure in the tourist destination
(Stabler, 1995). The affective component of images indicates a person’s feelings
and emotional responses towards a destination (Baloglu & Brinberg, 1997).
The conative component refers to a person’s action or behavior in the
destination (Bigné et al., 2001; Gartner, 1994).
Previous studies (Hirschman &
Holbrook, 1982) provided other important factors that exert an impact on
destination images and suggested that destination images differ according to
area (i.e. cultural subgroups, specifically ethnic groups), gender and social
class. Socio-demographic characteristics (i.e. age, gender, household status,
education, income and residence/geographic distance from the destination) also
have been considered to influence a person’s perception and beliefs of a
destination image (Baloglu & McClear, 1999). The consequence between
respondents’ distances from the same regions would not differ (Hunt, 1975). In
terms of gender, Ryan and Aicken (2010) discovered that men are more favorable
towards economic impacts, whereas women are critical of planning procedures. In
terms of geographic distance factors, Walmsley and Young (1998) predicted that
destination images are influenced by personal experience and knowledge through
long-term assimilation of destination-related information. In terms of
experience, Davis (1988) proposed that if people receive more information and
knowledge towards tourism development, then they may fully support or display
positive perceptions towards tourism development in a destination. MacKay and
Fesenmaier (2000) investigated the influence of culture on environmental
preferences from destination images and converted it into a pure landscape
preference. However, studies on people’s involvement in the tourism industry,
especially participation and perception, are few, which may resulted in a
perceived destination image. Residents’ destination image is important means of
understanding the reason for the support on tourism development. That is, a
person is focused on the unique characteristics and tourism impacts of a
destination rather than psychological involvement with the place.
BENEFIT OF DESTINATION IMAGE
TO RESIDENTS
Various events
conduct in a destination can potential uplift destination image. Locals will
take pride and have more sense of belongings for their community. Destination
image research is one of the most investigated issues in tourism development
for marketing, visitors and residents. Destination image is a critical element
in tourism industry planning and destination marketing because it can affect
the relationship between the supply and demand of marketing. Residents’
perception of a destination (i.e. city or town) in which they live was examined
(Henkel, Agrusa & Tanner, 2006; Schroeder, 1996; Stylidis, Sit & Biran,
2016). To benefit residents, tourism development should focus on residents’
perception of destination image rather than tourists’.
Research about residents’
perceived destination image, attitude and view towards their place was further
supported by changing destination image and tourism development. According to
Merrilees, Miller and Herington (2009) highlighted residents’ perception to
natural environment, business activities next to public transportation, social
behaviors, employment opportunities and government characters. Various factors
affecting residents’ perception should be considered for future developments to
sustain a destination’s special characteristics and avoid any negative impact.
Therefore, it is worthwhile for investigate how local residents their attitudes
towards to behavior of event development in a destination.
RESIDENT ATTITUDE TO TOURISM
DEVELOPMENT
Resident attitude has been an
important issue in recent tourism studies. Resident attitude is formulated by
the perception of residents towards various benefits. Resident attitude likely
differs from the perception and behavior of destination visitors (Devine, 2009).
Keogh (1990) stated that the more government and marketers gave and provided
individual benefits and welfare to residents, the more positive the attitudes
towards tourism development from local communities.
Andriotis and Vaughan (2003)
stated that determining factor of residents’ attitudes is that residents cannot
realize the negative impacts towards tourism development. Residents’ attitude
can be summarized into three aspects: cognitive (beliefs, knowledge and
perceptions), affective (likes and dislikes), and behavioral (action taken or
expressed) (Carmichael, 2000). Harrill and Potts (2003) suggested that resident
attitude is an important foundation for economic and destination development.
When people living in tourism areas cannot get or receive economic benefits
from local visitors in tourism industry, they develop negative attitudes
towards local tourism development. Therefore, important influential factors of
tourism development from the residents’ side should be understood fully to
realize residents’ motivation (Harrill, 2004). Long, Perdue and Allen (1990)
concluded that resident attitude toward tourism development and planning is
positive at the beginning. However, if the cost is more expensive than the
benefits that the residents can get, then resident attitude will reach the
maximum. Support for destination development decreases afterwards. The
attitudes are not related to residents’ characteristics, except for education
and gender.
Pavlina (2013) found that
residents who get more individual benefits from destination tourism and realize
that tourism as a propel towards positive tourism industry fully support future
destination and tourism development. He also stated that all residents have
full perception towards positive and negative tourism impacts, suggesting
heterogeneity within these communities. Useful marketing strategies should be
made by local practitioners and marketers, rather than presenting simple
theories that tourism benefits residents by stating that residents’
expectations and needs in tourism development are different.
However, Girard and Gartner
(1993) examined long-term and short-term residents in Wisconsin. Long-term
residents are willing to see increased tourism development in their
destination. They are satisfied with the better goods and services from tourism
industry development.
PERCEIVED TOURISM IMPACTS BY
LOCAL RESIDENTS
Many studies concluded the
importance of residents’ perception towards tourism impacts in the tourism
industry. Residents support tourism development on the basis of their perceived
tourism impacts (Nunkoo & Ramkissoon, 2011; 2012). Tourism can lead to
changes in residents’ perception, daily lives, social behaviors, beliefs and
values. Residents’ perception or attitude towards tourism impacts received
scholarly attention worldwide due to its fundamental importance in the
development and management of sustainable tourism in a tourist destination
(Sharpley, 2014). Jurowski (2004) suggested three important factors in the
tourism industry: Economic, socio-cultural and environmental impacts. Economic
impacts include revenues or income increase, many employment opportunities,
capital investment increase, foreign exchange leakage, tax burden, inflation,
shortage of material and service industry and local government debt. Residents
realize negative economic impacts if cost of living and prices of goods and
services increase. They realize positive economic impacts if tourism provides
more jobs to residents, increase local revenue, residents’ income and their
quality of life.
Socio-cultural elements include
racial and cultural identity, increased leisure opportunities, increased
cultural communication and exchange, increased crime rates and changes in
traditional cultures. Brunt and Courtney (1999) also found that local residents
and the community also realize positive tourism impacts by increasing cultural
exchanges, communicating with different cultural people and protecting
historical and cultural heritage. Tourism has the potential to positively and
negatively affect residents in three main exchange domains. Negative tourism
impacts identified by some researchers (Andereck et al., 2005; Martin, 2008;
Diedrich & Garcia-Buades, 2009) include increased crime rate, drug abuse,
worse social behaviors and destroyed traditional culture and values.
Environmental impacts include
protected scenic spots and creatures, controlled logistics issue, crowded air
management, water and noise pollution and destroyed creatures and trees
(Andereck, 1995). The environment is also an important theme in tourism
development. Tourism can result in extensive environmental damages. Tourism
destinations are attractive, but they can result in fragile environments
without effective management from organizers and marketers (Andereck &
McGehee, 2008). Tourism also causes traffic congestion, crowding, noise and
pollution. Residents perceive positive environmental impacts when tourism
industry can preserve local culture and heritages, enhance environmental
conservation awareness and keep communities quiet and roads clean. Tourism
impacts can be considered negative if they bring disruption to society’s orders
or social stability. Positive impacts can enhance vital attributes.
Indeed, social-cultural,
environmental and economic impact was crucial for event development. However,
technology impact was often missing in event development’s studies .Technology
impact are very powerful ingredient and it might be motivated and could affect
the perceptions viewers of a destination image and travel decision –making
process. (Yen & Croy, 2016). Previous scholar highlight destination
familiarity refers to a combination of previous exposure and the level of
information obtained, to develop a recognizable construction of the destination
(Baloglu, 2001). Therefore, this research attempt to fill the gaps for previous
studies.
In the tourism context,
residents’ attitudes and behaviors are influenced by extrinsic factors such as
the situation of development (Butler, 2010; Doxey, 1975), Residents’
perceptions of tourism impacts often promises industries’ practitioners and
marketers better strategies for local destination economic growth and community
development. Analyzing tourism impacts in destinations by understanding
residents’ perceptions of tourism impacts will help tourism industry gain
support from local community as well as ensure sustainable development. As
Morgan (2012) noted, successful tourism destinations should be places that
enhance the welfare of and benefits to its residents and provide a great
approach towards sustainable living.
RESIDENTS’ PERCEIVED TOURISM
IMPACTS ON TOURISM DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING
Tourism plays an
important role in economic component programs worldwide. Despite the popularity
of tourism planning in this research field, only a limited number of tourism
planning approaches were published in planning journals (Jamal et al., 2002;
Marcouiller, 1997). Many governments and planners regarded tourism as a stable
economic development strategy under many residents experience industrial
restructuring. Bello (2018) stated that social awareness and educational level
in tourism development were regarded as major factors in the residents’
participation in tourism planning. Harrill (2004) suggested that policy makers
on tourism planning should prioritize the
protection of a city’s social order, economic improvement, and environmental
protection, such that communities and visitors remain satisfied. They should
also consider the residents’ understanding of the meaning and benefits of
tourism development in relation to destination development and willingness to
maintain the local community’s quality of life. Padin (2012) proposed that an
effective tourism planning according to destination should incorporate three
factors, namely, economic, social and environmental development, into models of
tourism planning. These factors are easy to find in the literature and
frequently arise independently and without coordination. Bello (2018) suggested that governments and marketers
should reconsider the local residents’ willingness to support tourism planning.
As previously noted, several factors limit the participation of local
residents. When applied to this situation, Macau should rethink the conduct of its
events, which may affect the local community. As a result, the trade-off
between economic benefits and the local community may harm the environment.
Therefore, investigating residents’ perception of development of events is
worthwhile.
The lack of
appropriate tourism planning and management can cause problems, such as a
decrease in residents’ economic benefits from tourism impacts. This situation
may result in hostility or dissatisfaction towards tourists and tourism
development, which will eventually contribute to the destination’s decline. If
tourists create much traffic congestion and crowd public places in
environmental impacts, residents will become angry, unhappy and eventually
dissatisfied with tourists and may treat them impolitely. In addition,
residents may ignore how much tourism can help the development of the local
economy or increase job opportunities and income. Therefore, understanding the
significance of resident perception and attitudes towards the development of
the tourism industry and realizing the
requirement for the planning of tourist destinations in many developed and
developing areas or cities (Harrill, 2003).
At the same time, local communities in many tourism sectors are encountering
the positive and negative impacts of tourism. To gain a positive attitude
towards the development of the tourism industry and initiatives from local
residents, governments and marketers are currently investigating the perception
of the local communities towards the tourism industry (Harrill, 2004).
Tourism
planning should help a destination share its culture and provide attraction to
tourists and satisfy residents at the same time. Therefore, understanding and
realizing residents’ perceptions of tourism
impacts are necessary. In this manner, the government and marketers can carry
out efficient tourism planning for tourism development. At the same time,
community tourism planning is also important because it provides a platform in
which tourism experiences can be shared between tourists and local residents
and induces their
satisfaction towards tourism .If a community can carry out tourism planning, then they can hold
positive attitudes towards the creation of a friendly atmosphere for visitors.
If local communities are willing to participate in tourism planning towards
future tourism, then they will hold a strong sense of and perception for
tourism development planning and present a positive support for tourism
development-related activities, which can increase the effectiveness and
efficiency of the implementation of tourism planning (Inskeep, 1991).
THEORETICAL MODEL
Social Exchange Theory (SET)
has been one of the most fully cited theories for studying residents’
perception and attitude in the tourism industry (Sharpley, 2014). Many scholars
(Xu, 2015) studied residents’ attitudes towards and perceptions of tourism
predominantly using SET compared with other theories. SET is a social psychological and sociological theory that explains social
change and stability as a process of negotiated exchanges among all parties.
Furthermore, it is a general sociological theory concerned with the
understanding of the exchanges of resources between individuals and groups in
an interaction situation by Ap (1992). SET also describes an important
consequence, that is, human relationships are influenced by the use of
a subjective cost–benefit analysis and comparison of alternatives.
Harrill (2004)
noted that researches use famous theories to study residents’ attitudes or
perception towards the impacts of tourism development. These theories include
community attachment, social exchange and growth-machine theories. In the
tourism industry, residents’ perception is influenced by their understanding of
tourism in terms of expected benefits and costs obtained and services they
supply (Ap, 1992). Gursoy and Rutherford (2004) demonstrated that residents’
support for the tourism industry is positive when they realize or gain positive impacts. However,
residents’ support for the tourism industry is negative when they realize or gain negative impacts. Andriotis and
Vaughan (2003) discovered that economic, environmental and socio-cultural factors are important elements to
SET, which will elucidate residents’ perception towards future tourism
development. Researchers stated that SET is the most important theoretical
contribution to the tourism industry. Specifically, SET is widely used for the
research on residents’ attitude and perception (Fredline & Faulkner, 2000). According to SET, local
residents tends to support tourism development when they realized that the economic, environmental and
socio-cultural impacts are positive and that
they can obtain more benefits from them. Notably, these impacts comprise
extrinsic outcomes for destination residents.
Studies
that provide an appropriate structural model between residents’ destination
image, perception of tourism impacts and support for event development remain
lacking. Specifically, Turker (2013) considered the direct and indirect effects
of tourism impacts and found that residents perceived a slightly negative
impact and focused on major economic activities in the region. In addition,
previous studies (Echtner & Ritchie, 2003) defined destination image is a
mental construct influenced by the loss of information about a destination.
However, this definition does not reflect support for the perception of place
image for its residents. An adopted and theoretical model (Figure 1) suggests that residents’ destination image influences
their perception of the economic, socio-cultural and environmental impacts of events, which
in turn affect their level of support for event development (Stylidis, 2014).
Residents’ destination image has been shown to have a direct effect on
residents’ support for event development. At the same time, the study also
provided a comprehensive understanding of residents’ destination image and
filled the research gap in terms of residents’ support and perception of
tourism impacts and destination image.(see figure
1).
METHODOLOGY
Study
methodology providing a deep understanding of the
residents’ perception of tourism impacts and destination image in event
development in Macau in a natural setting that is sensitive the residents’
perception and attitude. Therefore,
research adopted qualitative approach to collect data to present the
commitment to a certain version of a naturalistic, interpretive approach to the
subject matter and an ongoing critique of the politics and methods of
post-positivism (Denzin & Lincoln, 2003). The descriptive research design
aims to obtain five elements about interviewees, such as: ‘who’, ‘what’ and
‘where’ from single or multiple cases (Yin, 2010).
Moreover, we focused on the nature of the research questions, complexities
involved in event development in Macau and local perception of local
destination image and tourism impacts. This study used in-depth interviews to
obtain qualitative data. The responses were subsequently transcribed for
accurate presentation. Open-ended questions were used, and data were analyzed using the grounded theory frame. The study used non-probability sampling to
represent the entire population of interest and infer the possible generalization of the findings. The selection of
responders is an important approach in obtaining rich information sources.
Interviewees must be residents in Macau for more than one year and willing to
participate in the interview. The
study adopted snowball sampling to select
potential candidates. Sampling the residents
ensured that the answer would be verified. Residents were selected as the
target respondents in Macau’s major communities. Hence, the questionnaire was
completed using the back-translation method to ensure that the questions were
comprehensible in English and Chinese. To maintain construct validity, the
English and Chinese versions were compared to ensure that the translation was
accurate and did not induce bias in the research.
The minimum sample
size that is required to reach saturation and redundancy in grounded theory
studies was 30 participants (Dworkin, 2012). A fact sheet provided to local
residents for sharing more information to the participants. The interview took
place in the local restaurants and
library which provide a quiet area for interviewees feel free to share their comments. The data were
summarized and organized according to the themes
generated by the documentary review. Summaries of the interviews were also
prepared to highlight the main concepts that emerged and set the context for
selecting quotes from their comments, which were used as examples in the
research report. The data analysis
and coding were conducted in several stages. The generated codes were categorized and displayed in themed charts. Domain
analysis was used to describe and analyze
each theme separately. The coding results at different levels were compared to
explore differences in opinions and suggestions.
DISCUSSION
Thirty participants were interviewed in this study (Table 2). They were located in Macau peninsula. The age of the interviewees
ranged from 18 to 75 years old and were distributed as follows:
26.7% (8 out of 30) were 18 to 23 years, 26.7% (8 out of 30) were 24 to 38
years, 23.3% (7 out of 30) were 39 to 52 years, and 23.3% (7 out of 30) were 53
above. Approximately 60% of the respondents (18 out of 30) were male and 40%
(12 out of 30) were female. In terms of education level,
10% (3 out of 30) were bachelor’s degree holders; 46.7% (14 out of 30) were
high school and primary school graduates; 16.7% (5 out of 30) were certificate,
diploma or higher diploma degree holders; and 26.6% (8 out of 30) were master’s degree holders. Twenty-eight interviewees had
attended local events, whereas two had not.
This
study base on four key
questions to examine locals their perception
of support for event development.
1) What are your perceptions towards to event development in Macau?
2) What is the overall effect of event tourism on Macau’s image
and the community?
3) What are the potential perceived impacts to Macau event development?
4)
What is your recommendation for future event development and improvement of Macau from a tourism perspective?
Interviewees need to response to
the above four key questions and expressed their feeling about the potential
image which may to the local community. Interviewees will highlight the
potential impacts may cause to support event development in Macau.
MACAU RESIDENTS’ ATTITUDES
TOWARDS EVENT DEVELOPMENT IN MACAU
Most respondents
believe that tourism development relied on the gambling industry, because it
was a key tourist attraction and largely contributed to tourism. The
respondents believe that Macau lacks scenic spots. Though the service industry
was an important industry in Macau, four young respondents said the service quality level in Macau was low, and service staff lack
advanced knowledge in service quality. Two senior respondents also believe that
tourism development resulted in a large number of visitors, especially
low-quality group tours. However, one respondent believe that Macau had
gathered many international events, making it an international event tourism
destination.
Almost
half of respondents hardly attended events in Macau despite events being a new
industry. This situation included three reasons, namely, locals’ lack of
interest in the event themes, lack of discount for locals and simply a lack of
time. Moreover, unattractive event themes were the main reason residents do not attend
events. However, four senior respondents argued that event themes were
interesting, which offer a new form of leisure for families. Some respondents
agreed that event development was supported by the government. Furthermore,
several respondents considered the event industry’s reliance on the gambling
industry and its benefit to other industries. Almost all respondents have a
positive attitude towards event development in Macau, even though events result
in crowding and congestion.
RESIDENTS’ PERCEPTION OF THE
EFFECTS OF EVENT TOURISM ON DESTINATION IMAGE AND TOURISM IMPACTS IN THEIR
COMMUNITY
All
respondents stated that they have realised that tourism effect on destination
image and tourism impacts in their community. Researchers relate the importance
of proper image development to the overall success of a tourism destination
(Chen & Kerstetter, 1999). Therefore, residents’
perception of destination image is a crucial issue for destination tourism in
Macau. Only three negative impacts were stated by respondents, including
environmental harm, increasing crimes and too much commercialisation. According
to the respondents, event tourism may harm the environment because it can
result in crowding, congestion and pollution brought about by the large number
of visitors. Positive impacts included increased jobs, cultural exchange and
entertainment. Event tourism will increase jobs because it can contribute to
economic development, as stated by most respondents. In addition, young
residents focus on cultural exchange with humanistic nature, whereas senior
residents focus on gastronomy.
In the
potential image of economic impacts, several job opportunities were stated by
most respondents. The event industry can solve employment issues to some
extent. In fact, it has provided numerous jobs opportunities to Macau
residents. Respondents also stated issues such as industry innovation,
government income and infrastructure.
Potential
image of environmental impacts only included environmental destruction and
noise. Respondents stated that the event industry can contribute to destroying
the environment, such as crowding, congestion and pollution. However, events
can bring economic benefit to residents. Locals also agree that the event industry
causes noise.
Most
Macau residents have positive attitude towards event development in Macau. They
support event development in Macau because of its positive economic and socio-cultural impacts despite its negative
environmental impacts. Therefore, the government and practitioners should focus
on negative environmental impacts and address the associated problems.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE
GOVERNMENT FOR FUTURE DESTINATION IMPROVEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT
More
than half of the respondents (22 out of 30) stated that the government should
focus on locals’ needs, such as job opportunities, improved social welfare and
diverse events. Respondents’ answers reveal that local residents are concerned
about benefits on the quality of life more than other issues, but they all have positive attitude and support
towards the event business in Macau. Shim and Lee (2003) identified that the
government expects accrued benefits to positively influence economic and
environmental development along with residents’ support and enhancement of
their quality of life. Thus, the government must fully understand and ensure
locals’ need to enhance their quality of life.
The
youth also prefer to receive information about events via advanced and
traditional approaches, and social media. Marketers and organizers should particularly focus on using
WeChat and Weibo when promoting events because the youth will be the key target
market of events. Thus, marketers and organizers must change traditional word-of-mouth promotion
methods to social media to capture the youth.
A
total of 13.4% of interviewees (4 out of 30) said that the government should
control logistic issues to avoid crowding. Crowding is that the main negative
environmental impact perceived by local residents because the large number of
visitors gathered in scenic spots, public transportation stations and even in
communities make local residents feel crowded. Local interviewees tented to
control visitors in communities and improve public transportation condition.
Thus, the government and marketers must make proper tourism management planning
to avoid inconvenience to local residents.
A
total of 13.4% of interviewees (4 out of 30) said that the government should
educate residents and tourists regarding tourism development in the future.
Their answers show that visitors’ social behavior should be managed to protect
the environment and maintain the quiet living conditions of locals. Residents
should also adopt a policy of courtesy and become good hosts especially because
the local youth had serious complaints about the service industry. Thus, the
government and marketers must make proper planning about training to enhance
quality of service between residents and visitors.
NEW
FRAMEWORK OF RESIDENTS’ IMAGE AND PERCEIVED IMPACTS FOR EVENT DEVELOPMENT IN
MACAU
Figure
2 shows residents’ image and perceived
impacts for event development in Macau. Residents’ support for event
development was influenced by perceived economic impacts, perceived socio-cultural impacts, perceived environmental
impacts, perceived technological impacts and residents’ image. Science and
technology is the foundation for rapid event development. Apart from
exhibitors, visitors and designers can gain benefits via science and
technology. However, residents’ quality of life would be influenced by science
and technology. Positive technological impacts for locals would strengthen
their support for the event business. Residents’ image also could impact
perceived economic impacts, perceived socio-cultural impacts, perceived environmental impacts and
perceived technological impacts.
Technological impact also relates to residents’
support for event development. Modern science and technology are becoming the
dominant force towards the development of the event industry. It can not only
improve the efficiency of exhibition activities, but also improve the quality
of life of locals in hosting locations. Young locals also use mobile payments
in Macau. This trend originated from Mainland visitors through event tourism.
It was a convenience in daily life and resulted in numerous economic benefits.
Previous studies were limited to social, economic and environmental impact.
However, this study filled the gap by considering technological impact.
IMPLICATION FOR DESTINATION MARKETERS
This research discovered that environmental
impact and environmental destruction are unique negative concern in residents’
perception. Hence, the government and practitioners should focus on this issue.
Therefore, effective management strategies considering environment management
should be made in future event development. This study identified that marketers need to
adopt technology to capture the youth’s attention. The youth prefer to receive
and use technology if it is interesting and convenient. In the event industry,
young generation locals prefer simple and convenient social media when
receiving information about events. The government and practitioners should
replace the word-of-mouth approach with social media. At the same time, the
government and marketers should focus on technological impacts towards locals,
because these impacts would strengthen locals’ support for the event business.
This study also identified strong expectations
of locals to satisfy their needs, provide numerous jobs and welfare to
residents, balance locals’ need and event development. If the government
handles the suggestion well, then residents would support future event
development.
LIMITATIONS AND FURTHER
RESEARCH
This study emerged from the related
literature, which included the use of secondary data analysis and in-depth
interviews. However, this study has several limitations. Firstly, its sample
size was small. The sample size included only 30 participants. Secondly, the research employed convenience
sampling in Fai Chi Kei and Iao Hon two small local communities. Thus, the
results may vary from other communities in Macau. Therefore, the analysis that
remaining parts of residents’ perception of other perspectives in tourism was
drawn with these restrictions in mind.
Future studies should utilize different
approaches to identify this issue and not only qualitative approaches. Sample
size should also be enhanced and different communities. Furthermore, in-depth
interviews on the perception of residents’ image and perceived impacts for
event development should be taken.
Alhemoud,
A.M., & Armstrong, E.G. (1996). Image of tourism attractions in Kuwait.
Journal of Travel Research, 34(4), 76-80.
Andereck,
K.L. (1995). Environmental consequences of tourism: A review of recent
research. In Linking tourism, the environment, and sustainability. Annual
Meeting of the National Recreation and Park Association 77-81, General
Technical Report No. INT-GTR-323.
Andereck,
K.L., Valentine, K.M., Knopf, R.C. & Vogt, C.A. (2005). Residents
perceptions of community tourism impacts. Annals of Tourism Research, 32(4),
1056-1076.
Andereck,
A. & McGehee,N. (2008). The attitudes of community residents towards
tourism. Tourism , Recreation and Sustainability , 236-258.
Andriotis,
K. &Vaughan, R.D. (2003). Urban residents attitudes toward tourism development:
The case of crete. Journal of Travel Research, 42(2), 172-185.
Ap, J.
(1992). Residents perceptions on tourism impacts. Annals of Tourism Research,
19(4), 665-690.
Baloglu,
S., & McCleary, K.W. (1999). A model of destination image formation. Annals
of Tourism Research, 26(4), 868-897.
Balduck,
Maes & Buelens (2011). The Social Impact of the Tour de France: Comparisons
of Residents Pre- and Post-event Perceptions. European Sport Management
Quarterly, 11, 91-113.
Baloglu,
S.(2001). Image variation of Turkey by familiarity index: Informational and
experiential dimensions. Tourism Management , 22(2),127-133.
Beerli,
A. & Martin, J. (2004). Factors influencing destination image. Annals of
Tourism Research, 31(3), 657-681.
Bello,
F.G. (2018). Enhancing community participation in tourism planning associated
with protected areas in developing countries: Lessons from Malawi. Tourism and
Hospitality Research, 18 (3) 309-320.
Bigne,
J.E., Sanchez, M.I., & Sanchez, J. (2001). Tourism image, evaluation
variables and after-purchase behavior: Inter-relationship. Tourism Management,
22(6), 607-616.
Boutar,
G. & MeLeod, Paul (1993). Residents perceptions on impact of the America's
Cup. Annals of Tourism Research, 20, 571-582.
Brunt
& Courtney (1999). Host perceptions of sociocultural impacts. Annals of
Tourism Research. 26, (3), 493-515.
Butler,
R.W. (2010). The concept of a tourist area cycle of evolution: implications for
management of resources. Canadian Geographer, 24(1), 5-12.
Carmichael,
B.A. (2000). A matrix model for resident attitudes and behaviours in a rapidly
changing tourist area. Tourism Management, 21(6), 601-611.
Chen,
P.J., & Kerstetter, D.L. (1999). International students’ image of rural
pennsylvania as a travel destination. Journal of Travel Research, 37(3),
256-266.
Chen,
S. (2011). Residents’ Perceptions of the Impact of Major Annual Tourism Events
in Macao: Cluster Analysis. Journal of convention and event tourism. 12,(2).
Crompton,
J.L. (1979). An Assessment of the image of Mexico as a vacation destination and
the influence of geographical location upon that image. Journal of Travel
Research, 17(1): 18-23.
Davis,
D., Allen, J., & Cosenza, R.M. (1988). Segmenting local residents by their
attitudes, interests, and opinions toward tourism. Journal of Travel Research,
27(2), 2-8.
Denzin,
N.K., & Lincoln, Y. (2003). The landscape of qualitative research: Theories
and issues (2nd ed). London: Sage Publications.
Derret,
R. (2011). Festivals, events and the destination. In I. Yeoman, M. Robertson,
J. Ali-Knight, S. Drummond, & U. McMahon-Beattie (Eds.), Festival and
events management an international arts and cultural perspective, 32-50. New
York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.
DESC,
Estatisticas do turismo tourism statistics. (2019). Retrieved from
http://m.dsec.gov.mo/Default.aspx
DESC,
Estatisticas do turismo tourism statistics. (2019). Retrieved from
http://m.dsec.gov.mo/Default.aspx
DESC,
Estatisticas do turismo tourism statistics. (2019). Retrieved from http://m.dsec.gov.mo/Default.aspx
Diedrich
, A & Garcia-Buades, E. (2009) . Local perceptions of tourism as indicators
of destination decline. Tourism Management 30 (2009) 512–521
Doxey,
G. (1975r). Visitor-resident interaction in tourist destinations: inferences
from empirical research in Barbados, West Indies and Niagara-on-the-Lake,
Ontario. In Symposium on the Planning and Development of the Tourist Industry
in the ECC Region, Dubrovnik, Yugoslavia, 8-11.
Dworkin,
S. (2012). Sample size qualitative studies using in-depth interviews. Archives
of Sexual Behavior, 41,1319-1320.
Echtner,
C.M., & Ritchie, J.B. (1991). The meaning and measurement of destination
image. Journal of Tourism Studies, 2(2), 2-12.
Echtner,
C.M., & Ritchie, J.R.B. (1993). The measurement of destination image: An
empirical assesment. Journal of Travel Research, 31(4), 3-13.
Echtner,
C.M., & Ritchie, J.R.B. (2003). The meaning and measurement of destination
image. Journal of Tourism Studies, 14(1), 37-48.
Fayeye,
P & Crompton, J. (1991). Image difference between perspectives first time
and repeat visitors to the Low Rio Grande Valley .Journal of Travel Research ,
30:10 ,9-16.
Fredline,
E., & Faulkner, B. (2000). Host community reactions: A cluster analysis.
Annals of Tourism Research, 27(3), 763-784.
Fredline,
L., Jago, L., & Deery, M. (2003). The development of a generic scale to
measure the social impacts of events. Event Management, 8(1), 23-37.
Frosh,
S. (2006). For and against psychoanalysis (2nd ed.). London: Routledge.
Gartner,
W.C. (1994). Image formation process. Journal of Travel & Tourism
Marketing, 2(2-3), 191-216.
Getz,
D. (1991). Festivals, special events and tourism, New York: Van Nostrand
Reinhold.
Getz,
D. (1997). Event management and event tourism, New York: Cognizant Communication.
Getz,
D. (2008). Event tourism: definition, evolution, and research. Tourism
Management, 29(3), 403-428.
Getz,
D. (2008). Event tourism: definition, evolution, and research. Tourism
Management, 29(3), 403-428.
Gibson,
C., & Davidson, D. (2004). Tamworth, Australia’s country music capital:
place marketing, rurality, and resident reactions. Journal of Rural Studies,
20(4), 387-404.
Girard,
T.C., & Gartner W.C. (1993). Host community perceptions. Annals of Tourism
Research, 20(4), 685-700.
Gunn,
C. (1997). Vacationscape: Developing tourist areas (3rd ed.). United States of
America: Taylor and Francis.
Gursoy,
D., & Rutherford, D.G. (2004). Host attitudes toward tourism: An improved
structural model. Annals of Tourism Research, 31(3), 495-516.
Harrill,
R., & Potts, T.D. (2003). Tourism planning in historic districts: Attitudes
toward tourism development in charleston. Journal of the American Planning
Association, 69(3), 233-244.
Harrill,
R. (2004). Residents' attitudes toward tourism development: A literature review
with implications for tourism planning. Journal of Planning Literature, 18(3), 251-266.
Henkel,
R., Henkel, P., Agrusa, W., Agrusa, J., & Tanner, J. (2006). Thailand as a
tourist destination: Perceptions of international visitors and Thai residents.
Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 11(3), 269-287.
Hirschman,
E.C., & Holbrook, M.B. (1982). Hedonic consumption: c\emerging\concepts,
methods and propositions. Journal of Marketing, 46(3), 92-101.
Hsieh,
H.F., & Shannon, S.E. (2005). Three approaches to qualitative content
analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 15(9), 1277-1288.
Hunt,
J.D. (1975). Image as a factor in tourist development. Journal of Travel
Research, 13(3): 1-7.
Jamal,
T.B., Stanley, M.S., & Thomas, L.H. (2002). Beyond labels: Pragmatic
planning in multi stakeholder tourism environmental conflicts. Journal of
Planning Education and Research, 22(2), 164-177.
Jurowski,
C., & Gursoy, D. (2004). Distance effects on residents' attitudes toward
tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 31(2), 296-312.
Keogh,
B. (1990). Public participation on community tourism planning. Annals of
Tourism Research, 17(3), 449-465.
Konstantaki,
M., & Wickens, E. (2010). Residents' perception of environmental and
security issues at the 2012 London Olympic Games. Journal of Sport and Tourism,
15(4), 337-357.
Lee,
T.H. (2013). Influence analysis of community resident support for sustainable
tourism development. Tourism Management, 34, 37-46.
Long,
P.T., Perdue, R.R., & Allen, L. (1990). Rural resident tourism perceptions
and attitudes by community level of tourism. Journal of Travel Research, 28(3),
3-9.
Macao
Government Tourist Office. (2018). MGTO Annual Press Conference: To build a
world center of tourism and leisure and promote quality tourism New tourism
theme and image to be created to keep pace with the new era. Accessed on:
August 15,2018. Available online at: http://industry.Macaotourism.gov.mo/en/pressroom/index.php?page_id=172&id=2356
MacKay,
K. & Fesenmaier, D.( 2000). An exploration of cross-cultural destination
image assessment. Journal of Travel Research. 38(4), 417-423.
Marcouiller,
D.W. (1997). Toward integrative tourism planning in rural America. Journal of
Planning Literature, 11(3), 337-357.
Mayo,
E.J. (1973). Regional images and regional travel behaviour. The Travel Research
Association Fourth Annual Conference Proceedings. Sun Valley: Idaho.
McCartney,
G. (2005). The impact of the 50th Macao Grand Prix on Macao’s destination
image. International Journal of Event Management Research, 1(1), 46-65.
MccCartney,
G.(2016) Play the cards, roll the dice - the integration of casinos within
Asian tourism destination development strategy. UNLV Gaming Research &
Review Journal, 20(2), 119-139.
Merrilees, B., Miller, D., & Herington, C.
(2009). Antecedents of residents’ city brand attitudes. Journal of Business
Research, 62(3), 362-367.
Morgan,
N. (2012). Time for “mindful” destination management and marketing. Journal of
Destination Marketing & Management, 1(1-2), 8-9.
Moutinho,
L. (1993). Consumer behaviour in tourism. European Journal of Marketing,
21(10), 5-44.
Nunkoo,
R., & Gursoy, D. (2012). Residents' support for tourism: An identity
perspective. Annals of Tourism Research, 39(1), 243-268.
Padin.
C. (2010). A sustainable tourism planning model: Components and relationships.
European Business Review, 231-260.
Morgan,
N. (1996). Reconstruing place image: A case study of its role in destination
market research. Tourism Management, 17(4), 287-294.
Sharpley,
R. (2014). Host perceptions of tourism: A review of the research. Tourism
Management, 42, 37-49.
Shim,
W.S., & Lee, Y.T. (2003). Residents’ perceptions of government involvement
impact and their attitudes toward government driven tourism development.
International Journal of Tourism Sciences, 3(2), 133-150.
Silvers,
J.R. (2004). Professional event coordination 62. USA: John Wiley & Sons.
Stabler,
M.J. (1995). The image of destination regions: Theoretical and empirical
aspects. In B. Goodall, & G. Ashworth (Eds.), Marketing in tourism
industry: The promotion of destination regions, pp: 133-159.
Stylidis,
D., Biran, A., Sit, J., & Szivas, E.M. (2016). Residents’ support for
tourism development: The role of residents place image and perceived tourism
impacts. Tourism Management, 45, 260-274.
Taormina
,R.J. & Kuok, A.C.H. (2009). Factors related to casino dealer burnout and
turnover intention in Macau: Implications for casino management, 9(3)
Tassiopoulos,
D., & Johnson, D. (2009). Social impacts of events. In J. Musgrave, &
R. Raj (Eds.), Event management and sustainability. USA: CAB International, pp:
76.
Walmsley,
D.J., & Young, M. (1998). Evaluative images and tourism: The use of
personal constructs to describe the structure of destination images. Journal of
Travel Research, 36(3), 65-69.
Wong,
A. & Rosenbaum, M. (2012). Beyond hardcore gambling: Understanding why
mainland Chinese visit casinos in Macau. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism
Research, 36 (1), 32-51.
Xu, J.,
Hui, C.K.T., & Chan, E.A.H. (2015). Hong Kong’s destination image in the
eyes of residents. Journal of China Tourism Research, 11(4), 440-460.
Yen,
Chang-Hua & Croy,W. Glen (2016). Film tourism: Celebrity involvement,
celebrity worship and destination image. Current Issues in Tourism, 19,(10),
1027-1044.
Yin, R.
K. (2010). Case study research: Design and methods. Journal of Advanced
Nursing, 44(1), 108.