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Aging is the final act of life, characterized
by progressive decline tissues and organs functions and increased risk of
mortality. Organismal senescence is a multifactorial process which difficult to
quantitate. Each measurable
physiological function decreases at a specified speed in a wide range. Aging is
phenomenon not coded in the genome. Accumulating evidence links senescence to
epigenetic alterations. Given the reversible nature of epigenetic mechanisms,
these pathways provide promising avenues for therapies against age-related
phenomenon and diseases. In this mini review the potential therapeutic benefits
of Saussurea involucrata extract on
organismal senescence is addressed. Data provide renewed insight on the
molecular modes of protection by extract from Saussurea involucrata, which is likely to be at least in part
mediated not only by her potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. We
identify processes affecting organismal senescence and suggest some reasonable
proposals for the future research including possible prevention, slowdown or
treatment of aging phenomenon. In conclusion, this review aims to highlight the
therapeutic significance of the Saussurea
involucrata and gives guidance on future research of this plant in organism
aging.
Keywords: Aging, organismal senescence, cell
senescence, Saussurea involucrate, prevention,
treatment
INTRODUCTION
Aging in mammals is universal and degenerative, and appears to be
unavoidable even in very sheltered environments. Aging is a multifactorial
action, which is difficult to quantify. Every measurable physiological action
decreases with characteristic speed over a wide range. Therefore, when looking
for the cause of mammalian aging, it is reasonable to look for an intrinsic
process that damages intracellular organelles, which limits lifespan.
Senescence is a final outcome of life, characterized by progressive decline in
tissues and organs function and increased risk of mortality. Aging is the
gradual loss of molecular accuracy following reaching maturity, culminating in
loss of function and ultimately illness and death. In most organisms, the rate
of aging is inversely proportional to lifespan. Accelerated aging is also the
risk factor for development cancer, cardiovascular disease and
neurodegeneration [1-3]. On the other hand, healthspan is defined as the time
for which an organism remains free of diseases. Identifying pathways to
increase healthspan and lifespan are intriguing challenges of biogerontology
research. Senescence is now the most common and cost problem in the world. The
number of aged people actually is growing very fast especially in developed countries.
Above is a major cause of progressing adult disability worldwide for which is
recently no effective prevention. Geriatric specialists are hunting for safe
and effective substances to slow down senescence as many cases as possible.
Organismal Aging
Aging is not coded in the genome, is associated with epigenetic mechanisms, which limit vital activities [4]. During aging, spare parts age, largely as a result of progressive loss of vital activities, some functions disappearing quick and other relatively slow, as for example elastic functions of blood vessel elasticity or accommodation [5-7]. The slowest disappearance of function is connected with the speed of nervous conductivity but the fastest with elastic recoil [5,7].
Rapidly
declining elastic functions, such as accommodation, skin, vascular and
pulmonary elasticity, concern essential physiological functions in organism.
Some aging processes are not the result of loss of function, but they are the
consequence of illegitimate biochemistry in the organism, without running
defenses mechanisms, such as non-enzymatic glycosylation. The loss of vital
activities can be slow, intermediary and/or rapid [5,7]. Aging in spare parts
is the consequence of uneven disappearance of individual functions, dependent
on cellular and molecular mechanisms involved, mainly mediated by receptors
[5,8]. It has been shown that the density of receptors on cells decreases with
age [5]. Not which receptors, such as receptor recognizing elastin, lose the
properties of signal transmission to intracellular compartment, although the
receptor on the cell membrane is present [5,6]. In contrast to aging,
age-related pathologies are under the control of genes that react to
stress/pathogens and maintain the genome [5].
Cellular Senescence
Cell death is probably caused by poisonous body factors during stress.
Cultures with human skin fibroblasts have been shown that dividing of the cell culture
stopped reaching 50 to 60 doublings [5]. It means that cells life in culture is
limited. Similar data were obtained with organ cultures [5]. Searching for
mechanisms limiting cell viability in culture indicated progressive shortening
of telomeres necessary to attach polymerase DNA copying genes for cell
duplication [9]. This mechanism is not enough to explain the aging of the
organism. Confirmation of the above suggestion is loss of human skin,
determined by images analysis of histological sections which was faster than
telomere loss [5,10]. Proteolysis is upregulated with age, at the cell, tissue
and organ level, contributing to the age-dependent disappearance of skin tissue
and slows down with age cell proliferation. [5].
Definition
of cellular aging associated with the pathophysiological process in which cells
permanently lose their proliferative capacity, maintaining viability and
metabolic activity [11,12]. Senescent cells characterized by flattening,
enlargement of cell and nucleus, intracellular vacuolization and changed
chromatin structure. At the biochemical level, cellular senescence is
characterized by: (1) increased lysosomal galactosidase beta 1 activity, (2)
absence of marker of proliferation Ki-67, (3) inhibition of multiple cyclin-dependent
kinases and consequent dephosphorylation of various members of the
retinoblastoma protein family [13], (4) activation of the DNA damage machinery,
generally as a consequence of telomere erosion, and (5) presence of so-called
senescence-associated heterochromatic foci [11,14,15]. Aging cells secrete a
diversity of mitogenic and immunomodulatory cytokines, chemokines and growth
factors [15,16]. Senescence-associated secretory phenotype appears to be
involved in the immunological clearance of aging cells, it also affects the
function of neighboring cells [1,15-17].
Cellular
aging processes contribute to the development of embryogenesis [18] and to many
pathophysiological operations, including tissue repair and regeneration,
immunity, stem cell compartment maintenance and overproduction [19-25]. In
particular, cellular aging occurs in response to: (1) potentially carcinogenic
events including oncogene activation or oncosuppressor gene inactivation, and
(2) several sublethal cellular actions, including DNA damage, telomere
shortening, stalled DNA replication, dysfunction of mitochondria, metabolic,
mitotic, lysosomal, mechanical, oxidative or proteotoxic activities [2,14,26].
Evidence indicates that senescent cells collect during organismal aging due to
their increased formation coupled to ineffective clearance [3,12,15,27].
Therefore, chronic cellular aging has been involved in personal aging, tissues
deterioration, lifespan shortening and the etiology of different age-related
diseases, such as neurodegeneration [1,12,19,28-34]. Thus, organismal
senescence is an attractive treatment target for extension lifespan [15,35].
Brain Aging
The triggers of aging are incompletely understood but may include the
free radical hypothesis of aging [36], which quickly evolved to the so-called
mitochondrial hypothesis of aging [37]. In an age-related changes in the brain,
the hippocampus is one of the most vulnerable areas. Brain aging shows
different phenotypes, such as a slow progressive loss of pyramidal neurons in
hippocampus and their connections, increased oxidative stress, a reduction in
neurogenesis and behavioral deficits [38,39]. In generally aging changes the
connections between the neurons in the hippocampus network. In the brain the
most sensitive parts to oxidative stress include the hippocampus, brain cortex
and striatum. The solid correlation between increasing age and the development
of oxidative damage of neurons has generally supported the oxidative stress
theory of aging [36]. In addition neurogenesis is severely decreased in the
part of hippocampus called dentate gyrus [40] and this is strongly associated
with cognitive decline. The aging of people is accompanied by chronic low-grade
inflammation, a phenomenon associated with weakness, morbidity and mortality in
the elderly [41]. This condition is associated with the accumulation of
senescent cells in aging tissues and organs through the aging-related secretory
phenotype, which includes key pro-inflammatory cytokines [41].
Amongst
the genetic effects of longevity, it should be mentioned the extraordinary
impact of mTOR on organismal aging, which increased longevity in mice even at a
comparatively advanced age, suitable to middle-aged people [42]. Other
interesting example concerns genes associated with autophagy, which control
insulin – insulin receptor-mediated-response [43]. Gender-determining genes
were either shown to be important in the inheritance of longevity [44]. Some
drugs were also shown to act on longevity, among them N-acetyl-L-cysteine in
Caenorhabditis elegans [45] and metformin on peripheral mononuclear cells from
patients with prediabetes [46]. It has also been shown that some herbal
supplements prolong the life span of Drosophila melanogaster
under certain environmental conditions and increase even resistance to stress
[5].
Experimental Model of Aging
D-galactose is a naturally occurring molecule in the human and animal
body and different investigations have demonstrated that reactive oxygen
species can be produced during the course of D-galactose metabolism [39,47].
Chronic administration of D-galactose is reducing sugar that can generate
advanced glycation end products, neurodegeneration and age-related phenotypes
[39,47]. Moreover, the administration of D-galactose to experimental animals
significantly decreases proliferation of progenitor cells, reduces the
migration and survival of new neurons in dentate gyrus [38]. Above alterations
of hippocampus neurogenesis is analogous to that observed in normally aging
mice and/or human [48].
Although
aging science is flourishing, the puzzles of this process have not yet been
fully solved and preventions have not been found. Senescence is a top priority
for rich countries and many corporate pharmaceutical portfolios and long-term
strategies and is actively targeted by different biotechnological companies,
making aging one of the most investigated processes in the pharmaceutical
industry. The discovery regarding the removal of p16Ink4a-positive senescent
cells which delay aging-associated diseases in genetically modified mice opens
interesting perspective regarding treatments approaches aimed at the removal of
aging cells to prevent or delay tissue and/or organ dysfunction [28]. However,
aging cells may also exert a physiological role and they can come in handy as
demonstrated during wound healing [24] and their removal could have adverse
effects, especially in young organisms [21]. For these reasons, it is necessary
to intensify studies efforts to clarify the role of selective removal of
changed by aging cells in experimental models which mimic old organisms. In
this context, the progress of strategies to clean senescent cells from tissues
could represent a new tool for the restraint chronic inflammation in aging
population and ameliorate people healthy lifespan. Now a feasible approach may
be use of senolytic substances [49], in particular natural bioactive molecules,
such as quercetin or flavonoids, which might be easily used in human clinical
trials, and minimizing the risk of adverse effects [50,51]. The natural diet
supplementation for aging and diseases connected with aging has currently
received a great deal of attention in industry and lay and medical communities.
There had been much enthusiasm because aged individuals tolerated the
supplementation very well, without dangerous side effects.
Asian Traditional Medicine
and Aging
Lastly additional attention in the industry of new medicine discovery
has been pointed on the neuroprotective action of natural Asian traditional
medicine known for thousands of years. Natural molecules with the effects of
calcium stabilization, antiinflammation, antiapoptotic and antioxidant show
preventive and therapeutic effects on aging associated disease and exhibit the
promising targets [52,53]. Current approaches paying attention on the possible
capacity of natural substances derived from vegetables, fruits, beverages,
plants and herbs to prevent or treat mainly age related injuries with dementia
phenotype [52-58]. Based on the knowledge from folk Chinese medicine, which
presented that Saussurea involucrata
has the effects of warming the kidney, activating yang, expelling wind, eliminating dampness, inducing
menstruation and promoting blood circulation and has been used for treatment
rheumatoid arthritis, impotence, irregular menses, cough with cold, stomachache
and altitude sickness [59]. Yang et al. [51] proposed to verify protective
effects of this substance in aging. To support above currently some natural
neuroprotective substances from extract of Saussurea
involucrata have been
demonstrated to be effective in focal brain ischemia [60] and epilepsy produced
by pentylenetetrazol [61], diseases which frequently occurring in adults and in
this situation an innovative methodological trial design was introduced by Yang
et al. [51]. The data from Yang et al. [51] study demonstrate that extract from
Saussurea involucrata reduces aged brain damage by
antioxidant activity [61]. This data are supported by protective effects of
extract from Saussurea involucrata in epilepsy [61]. Above studies
suggest that extract from Saussurea
involucrata may be a beneficial
nutrient for the slowing down senescence and lifespan extension. In this
situation extract from Saussurea involucrata is a vital source of dietary
antioxidants [62]. Else physical activity together with natural neuroprotection
trials seems today to be feasible in clinical care of aged humans.
DISCUSSION
Aging is an unavoidable outcome of life, presented as progressive
decline in cell, organ and tissue activity and raised risk of mortality.
Increasing evidence links aging to epigenetic changes [4]. Known the reversible
nature of epigenetic processes [4], these mechanisms give promising avenues for
therapy against age-related pathology and disappearance of function. In this
mini review of aging we tried to present current search advance in possible
therapy of phenomenon, focusing on prevention, slowdown and treatment options
by natural supplementation. It is evident that the present increase in human
life expectancy and slowing aging is the result of medical knowledge and
social-economic progress. Especially, direct manipulation of epigenetic factors
will greatly advance our understanding of the role of epigenetic changes that
are causal to aging. Together with the new technologies, and new experimental
models in aging research will provide key insight into the epigenetic
mechanisms that underlie aging and will likely identify factors and pathways
that can be targeted to improve health and lifespan in aged humans. In this
mini review, we have presented the possible protective activity and the
mechanism of action by extract from Saussurea
involucrate against aging processes. Use of this herb independently or in
combination it should be clarified. The exact quality control as well as the
toxicology investigations is necessary to guarantee the safety use this herb in
human clinic. Use Saussurea involucrate
decreased the expression of cyclooxygenase-2 via down regulation of NF-kappaB,
resulting in a decrease in lipid peroxidation. These data also showed that oral
administration of extract from Saussurea
involucrate to mice significantly improved behavioral performance [51] and
these results suggest that Saussurea
involucrate exerts potent anti-aging effects via antioxidative mechanisms
and also maintained endogenous antioxidant enzymatic activities stabilizing
mitochondrial activity [62]. Presented results should encourage further
investigation into the potential use of Saussurea
involucrate for the prevention, slowdown and treatment e.g. neurological
diseases and physical fatigue [55-58,63].
Future Perspectives
In summary development of neuroprotective substances from traditional
Asian medicine and some nutrient plant like Saussurea
involucrata is a promising route in the slowing down of neuropathological
changes in aged brain and associated with age neurodegenerative symptom like
dementia. In the future additional interest should be paid to above agents how
and when they can cross easily blood-brain barrier and clear pathological
targets without or with fewer side effects. The exponential progress in
traditional medicine herbs, vegetables and plants in the slowing down
senescence and lifespan extension with additional new information from Yang et
al. [51] study about neuroprotective extract from Saussurea involucrata in aging mouse model made in the last decade
provides the potential to achieve this goal. Further investigations are
necessary to evaluate the effect of Saussurea
involucrata on retention of memory and to determine the precise mechanisms
of action. We hope that presented data can provide a research program through a
new interpretation of Saussurea
involucrata biology to identify, which deleterious mechanisms are most
central to the initiation of the aging process and in this way lead us gradually
to a final causal theory, prevention and slowing aging. In this context, the
progress of strategies to remove aging cells could represent an emerging tool
for the damping of chronic inflammation and to extend human lifespan. An
applicable approach may be the use of senolytic compounds [49], in particular
natural bioactive substances, such as phenylpropanoids, flavonoids, coumarins,
lignans, sesquiterpenes, steroids, ceramides, polysaccharides and rutin, which
are isolated from Saussurea involucrata,
and which might be easily used in clinical trials, while minimizing the risk of
adverse effects [50,51,62]. Although studies have confirmed that Saussurea involucrata has a broad range of bioactivities, further in-depth
studies on the exact bioactive molecules and the mechanism of action are
expected.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors acknowledge the support provided by the Mossakowski Medical
Research Centre, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland (T3-RP).
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