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This
paper provides information on the micromycetes used in foods and drinks in
traditional and modern Bulgarian cuisine. It presents the results from an
ethnomycological study which compiles and evaluates the ethnobiological data
currently available in
combination with field studies and inquires conducted by the authors
in the years 1986-2015.
The results on 8 foods and drinks are organized according to the micromycetes
used (yeasts and moulds) in order of appearance on Bulgarian table (traditional
and modern). According to data
obtained, it is possible to claim the use of micromycetes in both traditional
and modern Bulgarian cuisine. The
significant changes in the food habits of Bulgarian people with increased use
of new healthy exotic products based on micromycetes practically follow
the ongoing processes of globalization and urbanization with enormous role of
social nets and media. Most of the changes concerned the younger population,
the citizens of the capital and biggest towns and middle and higher class in the
country. This conclusion is on conformity with our previous statements based on
usage of algae and mushrooms on the role of globalization in changing the food
habits of modern Bulgarians.
Keywords: Bulgarian green cheese, Blue cheese, Ethnomycology, Koji, Kombucha,
Lukanka, Miso, Moulds, Nafpavok, Soya sauce, Sudjuk, Yeasts
INTRODUCTION
Modern
ethnobotanical studies focused on European territories have been growing very
quickly with
attention turned to long neglected regions such as the Balkans [1]. This area is extraordinary and unique due to the
incomparable biological and cultural complexity of this territory within the
Old continent [2]. Bulgaria,
which occupies a part of the south-eastern Balkan Peninsula, also achieved higher
ethnobiological attention during the last 15 years with a start given by the
medicinal plant inventory of the country [3]. Yet the higher plants and
particularly edible and medicinal vascular plants have been more often in the
focus of such studies [4,5] in comparison with algae and fungi [6,7]. The aim
of this paper is to provide information on the micromycetes used in foods and
drinks in traditional and modern Bulgarian cuisine.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This study compiles and evaluates the ethnomycological data currently
available [8-18]. Fungal names
are given according to Index Fungorum [19].
Inquires were conducted
by the authors in the years 1986-2015 during their scientific field trips and
student summer practices in the country. Our students were also inquired and
were asked to mention all fungal species and products, which were used by them
or their parents,
friends and relatives. Ethical guidelines drafted by the International Society of
Ethnobiology [20] and American
Anthropological Association [21] were followed.
The study area covers practically the whole territory of Bulgaria – 111 000 km2 (Figure 1). The highest point is the peak Musala, at 2,925 m and the lowest point is sea level. Bulgaria has a temperate continental climate. The temperature amplitudes vary significantly in different areas: from the lowest recorded −38.3˚C to the highest of 45.2˚C. Precipitation averages about 630 mm per year, and varies from 500 mm in plains to more than 2,500 mm in the mountains. Continental air masses bring significant amounts of snowfall during winter. Due to the interaction of climatic, hydrological, geological and topographical conditions, Bulgaria is one of the countries with highest biodiversity in Europe. The population of Bulgaria is 7 245 677 people according to the 2011 national census. The majority of the population, or 72.5%, reside in urban areas; approximately one-third part of the total population is situated in the seven biggest towns (>100, 000 inhabitants – Sofia, Plovdiv, Varna, Burgas, Russe, Stara Zagora, Pleven) of the country and only in the capital Sofia is concentrated one-sixth of the total population. Bulgarians are the main ethnic group and comprise 84.8 per cent of the population [22].
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
During
our inquire, mentioning of micromycetes in relation to food and drinks certainly provokes in
Bulgarian people the association with traditional production of bread, wine and
beer based on yeasts. The second association is made namely with the blue cheese, Roquefort, based on moulds and mainly imported in the country.
During the last decades the awareness of the importance and high food quality
of all types of blue cheese has been growing up and now it is really rare to
get a negative reaction like “ooff, this stinking thing”. More, the usage of
such cheese becomes more and more popular, at least in big Bulgarian towns and
occupies an important place on the table of middle and higher classes. It has
to be outlined, that in spite of the general increase of interest, in popular
magazines and newspapers with recipes, mainly the common name “blue cheese” is
noted, without indication of the type, trademark, country of origin, etc.
Mentioning of all types of foreign cheese on modern Bulgarian market is
practically impossible, but it has to be noted that their consumption (incl.
the yeasts and moulds on which they are based) notably and continuously
increases, especially in the capital and in the big towns.
Due to the restricted volume of the paper, the use
of micromycetes in production of bread and alcoholic drinks had to remain out
of its scope and will be published elsewhere. However, we would like briefly to
mention the recent rapid increase in consumption of different white beers,
popular as Zhiva bira (which means a “living beer” in Bulgarian
language).
During
the last decades in Bulgaria obviously increased also the popularity and
consumption of non-alcoholic exotic drinks prepared with the use of fungi in
parallel with the increased interest in the application of fungi in other
products of traditional and modern Bulgarian cuisine. Below they are described
in more detail and are organized according to the micromycetes used (yeasts and
moulds) and in order of appearance on Bulgarian table (traditional and modern).
Tea fungus (Kombucha, Japanese fungus)
Tea fungus (Japanese fungus, kombucha) is the common name given to a symbiotic growth of acetic acid
bacteria and osmophilic yeast species in a zoogleal mat which are cultured in a sugared tea, and to the final liquid as well. The exact microbial
composition of kombucha depends on the source of the inoculum
for the tea fermentation
and therefore varies in each liquor. A broad spectrum of yeasts has been reported including species of Candida, Clavispora, Debariomyces, Dekkera, Issatchenkia, Hanseniaspora, Kluyveromyces, Meyerozyma, Mycoderma, Pichia, Saccharomyces, Saccharomycodes, Schizosaccharomyces, Torulospora and Zygosaccharomyces [23].
Kombucha drink is consumed worldwide as a homemade refreshing beverage and it is also
commercially sold by some companies [23]. On
the Balkans the Tea fungus (known
also as Chinese fungus, Hongo, Ma-Gu or
Mo-Gu, The miracle fungus, The fungus of
longevity, The fungus of mercy) appeared in the
middle of 20s of 20th century in the second wave of its invasion of Europe (Denmark, Germany, recent
Czech Republic and Slovakia) after Baltic countries, Poland and Russia and was
followed by appearance in Switzerland, France, Spain, Italy, etc. [15,16]. The
broader spread in Bulgaria the fungus achieved in 60s of 20th
century [16]. In the family of the second author of this paper it was imported
from Moscow (Russia) for household needs in 1968. Then, like in other families
and like it was described by Kraft [15,16], for years it was kept in home
conditions in a glass jar (closed on the top by double-layered gauze with the
original jar cover loosely laying over it), regularly “fed” by sweet black tea
and “cleaned” by taking out of the oldest culture layers. Since the exotic fungus liquor provoked interest
in relatives, family friends and many colleagues, it was spread among them
through the fungus subcultures. The spread through friends and relatives,
without payment, was one of the reasons the fungus to be known also as The fungus of mercy [15,16] in spite
that this name was not popular at that time in Bulgaria. There the liquid
affected by the fungus was used generally as mild vinegar spice for salads
after ca. one week “ripening” and as a soft refreshing beverage in the first
2-3 days after “feeding” by fresh sugared black tea. Another popular way of use
of the fungus tea liquor, according to the Russian experience, was its drinking
for sobering down. In the end of 90s the Tea
fungus was already quite well-known and used in households in Sofia (the
capital of the country) and as we believe, the cultures used were based only on
the black tea, as was the “original recipe” brought from Russia. In addition to
its healthy properties, it
became popular among ladies as a “luck bringing tea” in case the fungus
produces new “babies” on its surface and could be further spread to other
people. For sure, at
that time the name kombucha was not
used and the liquor was known only as Tea
fungus, or Japanese fungus.
According to our knowledge, the name kombucha
is used in the country no longer than 5-6 years. There is no certain
information about the use of the Tea
fungus in the other parts and towns of Bulgaria.
Since
January 2013 in Bulgaria started certified production of Kombucha tea [8]. The certified companies marketed the Tea fungus in health food stores and
drugstores, but now many restaurants, cafes, supermarkets and gyms also offer
it as a bio drink. Recently many different trade products based on the Tea fungus exist on Bulgarian market.
They are mainly naturally carbonated drinks from green tea in combination with
different fruits (e.g. chokeberry, rosehip, papaya, pineapple and cherries),
barks (cinnamon), roots (ginger) and flowers (elderberry), but there is also kombucha vinegar for salads, sauces, marinades
and dressings. All of these trade products are designed to restore health,
extend longevity and clarification of mind and get more and more public
recognition.
Tibetan fungus (Milk fungus, kefir)
Kefir is fermented milk beverage with a uniform creamy
consistency and a slightly sour taste. The milk fermentation is achieved by
kefir grains which are composed of yeast and bacteria [24]. A broad spectrum
of yeasts has been reported
including
species of Candida, Cryptococcus, Debaryomyces, Dekkera, Dipodascus, Issatchenkia, Kazachstania, Kluyveromyces, Pichia, Saccharomyces, Schwanniomyces, Torulaspora, Yarrowia, and Zygosaccharomyces
[24]. Most probably Milk fungus has
been imported in Bulgaria also from Russia (where it is quite popular), but
this is still not proved. Actually the fungus became popular in Bulgaria in the
end of 80s of the last century and again, according to our knowledge, the first
spread was in the capital Sofia. Then, according to the memories of the second
author of this paper, the liquid kefir milk culture, mainly known as an exotic
Tibetan culture of a healthy milk and called simply Tibetan fungus or Milk fungus
by Bulgarian people, passed from hand
to hand through relatives, friends and colleagues and was kept in many households.
However, in our opinion, the home kefir production did not become very popular
in the country and there are few explanations for this. On first place, the
necessity to provide regularly fresh quality milk to the fungus, made extremely
difficult keeping the culture in home conditions during the strong economic
(and food) crisis in the country in early 90s and many households (including
this of the second author of this paper) left off its maintenance. On the other hand, taking in mind
the peculiarity of Bulgarian characters with a strong traditionalism in food
habits (for details see [7]), at that time kefir with its more peculiar taste
could not compete with the widely used and beloved Bulgarian yogurt. Nowadays,
with much more increased interest to exotic products due to the globalization
and urbanization of the country with a strong Internet influence for its
advertisement as a healthy drink, kefir is sold in the shops of the capital and
other big Bulgarian towns and there are different kefir trade products (even
such without yeasts inside).
Green cheese or Bulgarian naturally cultivated Penicillium
The people from Cherni Vit village long neglected this mouldy cheese
for its spoiled and poor quality. It
began to disappear in the 70s of the 20th century, when local producers
replaced wooden tubs with plastic containers. However, this peculiar cheese was
rediscovered in 2007 by Italian specialists from the international organization
Slow Food and since then regularly
was submitted to the World Exhibition of cheese in the town Bra, Italy. There
the Bulgarian green cheese received high praise for its uniqueness and quality
[10]. Curiously, the green cheese has never been
offered on Bulgarian market. Nowadays just
some people from Cherni Vit still produce it using sheep and goat milk.
Blue cheese and its moulds
Blue cheese is a general classification of
cheeses that have had cultures of the mould Penicillium
added so that the final product is spotted or veined throughout with blue, or
blue-grey mould and carries a distinct smell, either from that or various
specially cultivated bacteria [11]. Blue cheese can be eaten directly or can be
spread, crumbled or melted into or over foods. Many blue cheeses carry a
protected designation of origin, meaning they can bear the name only if they
have been made in a particular region in a certain country.
There is almost no doubt that blue
cheese was imported in Bulgaria in the last century. By years it gained
better and better acceptance by local people and nowadays it is an integral
part of modern Bulgarian table. Therefore the interest in its production
increased and this could be traced back to a period of ca. 10-15 years.
Recently not only some milk farms and
specialized factories in the country produce blue cheese, but many people do
this in their households using white cheese inoculated with mould from another
blue cheese. Recipes for homemade blue cheese are widely spread in Internet.
Moulds in
traditional Bulgarian dried sausages
Lukanka and Sudjuk (Suzdzhuk)
Lukanka (Figure 2) is an unique Bulgarian (sometimes spicy) salami, a
special mix of small pieces of meat and fat. It is semi-dried, has a flattened
cylindrical shape, and brownish-red interior in a skin that is normally covered
with a white noble mould [12,13].
Traditionally, lukanka is made of
pork, veal, and spices (black pepper, cumin, salt), minced together and stuffed
into a length of dried cow intestine as casing [12,13].
Sudjuk (Sudzhuk
– Figure 2) is a dry, spicy
cured sausage made with a ground meats (mainly veal) and spices including
cumin, sumac, garlic, salt, and red pepper, minced together and stuffed into a
length of dried pork intestine as casing. Then traditionally it is bended to
take on its peculiar horseshoe
shape.
After stuffing, the salamis of both types are hung to dry for ca. 40 to
90 days in a well-ventilated place [13]. In the process of drying, each salami
is pressed to acquire its typical flat form and develop typical white noble mould.
The white noble mould is composed of bacteria,
yeast (Debaryomyces) and moulds (Penicillium).
The taste qualities of lukanka and sudjuk depend on natural characteristics
of the region it is produced in, and are formed under the influence of the
local microflora. There are several regions in Bulgaria well known for production of
these traditional meat delicacies. Most of these are located at the foots of
the Balkan mountain range, notably the Smyadovo, Panagyurishte, Karlovo, Gorna Oryahovitsa, and
Chiprovtsi regions and at the foots of Pirin Mt – in the regions of Bansko and
Razlog (Figure 1). "Karlovska
lukanka" is a name protected on a local level by the Patent office of
the Republic of Bulgaria for lukanka
from the Karlovo region. The "Lukanka panagyurska" of
Panagyurishte and the “Gornooryahovski
sudjuk” have obtained a EU-wide Traditional specialties guaranteed (TGI)
denomination.
Many people in Bulgaria have homemade production of sudjuk. After eating of the salami,
people collected the peeled parts of dry intestines which were naturally covered
with white noble mould and stored
them in a closeable jar in the fridge for the next sudjuk preparation. Before using, the collected moulded peels are
put in the pot full with water for some hours. When the new sudjuks are prepared, they are poured
over with the water full with spores of micromycetes causing white noble mould. The next time
sausages have even more white mould,
which is a premise for their good taste.
Moulds in the
traditional Nafpavok (Bulgarian prosciutto): Dedets, Babichka and Meurche
Nafpavok
(Figure 1 and 2) is an old (known for more than 100 years) traditional dried meat delicacy
from the Razlog region of Bugaria. Its flavour is unique; it is only
made in the months of December and January using small cut pieces of fresh pork
(loin, ham and shoulder), spices
(caraway, fennel and coriander) and
salt [14]. It is then stuffed into intestines and is left to dry on wooden grill in
several stages over several months. Important condition for correct nafpavok
preparation is the permanent ventilation of
the attic, where it is exposed for drying. Every second day the product is
turned round for an equal drying. After being dried, the spiced meat is pressed by a stone to take out the air, and then is kept underground in boxes full of wooden
ash, where it can be stored up to 16 months. The strange name of this delicious product
comes from the peculiar local pronunciation “nafpavam” of the verb “strain (exert)”, which in high
Bulgarian language sounds as “napuvam” and is related with the strong efforts
to push the cut meat mixture with spices in the pork intestine [op.cit].
When the same meat is
put in the pork stomach it is called Dedets
due to the fact that stomach resembles the humped back of an old man –
“Dyado” in Bulgarian language. In case that the meat is included in the
duodenum, which is
wrinkled like the face of an old lady, it is named Babichka or Baba, which
means “Old lady” in Bulgarian language [op.cit]. If the same meat is enclosed
in a bladder, then it is named Meurche
[op.cit] after the dialect version “Meur” of the Bulgarian word “Mehur” for the
bladder. The surface of the meat is normally covered by white noble mould, as it is in the cases of lukanka and sudjuk.
However, contrary to these last products, which are quite widespread in the
country, recently, the tradition of nafpavok production is kept only
in the village Gorno Draglishte and the product was rediscovered by the Slow Food organization [15]. Nowadays it received the
greatest number of online votes in the competition launched by the Association
for the Promotion of Arts and Crafts [16] and got the
Bulgarian award of Keeper of the Traditions in Culinary line for 2013 [14].
Miso and Koji mould
Miso is a fermented
soybean paste, one of the essential seasonings in Japanese cuisine. It is made from steamed
soybeans mixed with salt
and koji. The
last is a mould-treated rice, barley,
or soybean that acts as a
fermentation
starter [25].
The koji mould is Aspergillus flavus Link. In Bulgarian
cuisine miso appeared only recently
and is used as a spice, or as a part of the eponymous Japanese soup miso. Miso became popular mainly in the capital and in the biggest towns
of the country with the opening of bio stores, large food shop chains and
Japanese restaurants in Bulgaria in the last 10 years. In addition, the
increased popularity of miso could be
connected with the increased media and Internet advertisement of Japanese and
other exotic cuisines by popular master chefs and related TV competitions.
Doubtless, the increased public awareness of healthy, vegetarian and exotic
food, played an important role for the appearance of such products on modern
Bulgarian table. This concerns mainly younger people and people of middle and
higher classes as well.
Soy sauce and Koji mould
Soy sauce is a dark brown liquid obtained from a
fermented mixture of soybeans and wheat that has gained popularity worldwide. In general, there are two fermentation stages
involved in the production of soy sauce. The first stage is an aerobic koji fermentation in which fungi (Aspergillus flavus or Aspergillus sojae Sakag. & K. Yamada ex Murak.) are involved to break down the polysaccharides into simple sugars. The second stage is an anaerobic
salt mash, popular as
moromi (in Japanese), where the mixture undergoes lactic acid bacteria and yeast (Zygosaccharomyces rouxii (Boutroux) Yarrow)
fermentation [26]. In Bulgaria, the use of the soy
sauce could be traced back to the middle of 90s of the last century, when first
Chinese restaurants appeared in the country (for details see [7]). Its
popularity gradually increased with the enlargement of the chains of Asian
restaurants and big food chain shops in combination with media and Internet
influence. Again, as it was mentioned for the products enlisted above, the
concentrated use is in the capital and big towns, and concerns mainly younger
people and people of middle and higher classes.
CONCLUSION
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